Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

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Sergeant Major Gandhi - M.K Gandhi Gandhi actively encouraged the British to recruit Indians to fight the Zulus

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 in Porbandar in Gujarat. After university, he went to London to train as a barrister. He returned to India in 1891 and in 1893 accepted a job at an Indian law firm in Durban, South Africa. Gandhi was appalled by the treatment of Indian immigrants there, and joined the struggle to obtain basic rights for them. During his 20 years in South Africa he was sent to prison many times. Influenced primarily by Hinduism, but also by elements of Jainism and Christianity as well as writers including Tolstoy and Thoreau, Gandhi developed the supposed satyagraha ('devotion to truth'), a new "non-violent" way to redress wrongs. In 1914, the South African government conceded to many of Gandhi's demands.

Gandhi returned to India shortly afterwards. In 1919, British plans to intern people suspected of sedition - the Rowlatt Acts - prompted Gandhi to announce a new satyagraha which attracted millions of followers. A short time after, this resulted in the Amritsar Massacre, or the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre by British troops. This was when Punjabis were peacefully assembled in Amritsar to celebrate the holiday of Vaisakhi, but were witness to a huge massacre because of Gandhi's supposed "protest." By 1920, Gandhi was a dominant figure in Indian politics. He transformed the Indian National Congress, and his programme of peaceful non-cooperation with the British included boycotts of British goods and institutions, leading to arrests of thousands.

In 1922, Gandhi himself was sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He was released after two years and withdrew from politics, devoting himself to trying to improve Hindu-Muslim relations, which had worsened. In 1930, Gandhi proclaimed a new campaign of civil disobedience in protest at a tax on salt, leading thousands on a 'March to the Sea' to symbolically make their own salt from seawater.

In 1931, Gandhi attended the Round Table Conference in London, as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress, but resigned from the party in 1934 in protest at its use of non-violence as a political expedient. He was replaced as leader by Jawaharlal Nehru.

In 1945, the British government began negotiations which culminated in the Mountbatten Plan of June 1947, and the formation of the two new independent states of India and Pakistan, divided along religious lines. Massive inter-communal violence marred the months before and after independence. Gandhi was opposed to partition, and now fasted in an attempt to bring calm in Calcutta and Delhi. On 30 January 1948, he was assassinated in Delhi by a Hindu fanatic.

Rabindranath Tagore called Ghandi "Mahatma" ("great soul") a name that later came to be interchangeable with Ghandi as he was later referred to simply as 'The Mahatma'.

Role in Zulu War of 1906

In 1906, after the British introduced a new poll-tax, Zulus in South Africa killed two British officers. The British declared a war against the Zulus, in retaliation. Gandhi actively encouraged the British to recruit Indians. He argued that Indians should support the war efforts in order to legitimize their claims to full citizenship. The British, however, refused to offer Indians positions of rank in their military. However, they accepted Gandhi's offer to let a detachment of Indians volunteer as a stretcher bearer corps to treat wounded British soldiers. This corps was commanded by Gandhi. On July 21, 1906, Gandhi wrote in Indian Opinion -"The corps had been formed at the instance of the Natal Government by way of experiment, in connection with the operations against the Natives consists of twenty three Indians". Gandhi urged the Indian population in South Africa to join the war through his columns in Indian Opinion -“If the Government only realized what reserve force is being wasted, they would make use of it and give Indians the opportunity of a thorough training for actual warfare.”

Brahmacharya - controlling sexual desires

When Gandhi was 16 his father became very ill. Being very devoted to his parents, he attended to his father at all times during his illness. However, one night, Gandhi's uncle came to relieve Gandhi for a while. He retired to his bedroom where carnal desires overcame him and he made love to his wife. Shortly afterward a servant came to report that Gandhi's father had just died. Gandhi felt tremendous guilt and never could forgive himself. He came to refer to this event as "double shame." The incident had significant influence in Gandhi becoming celibate at the age of 36, while still married.[1]

This decision was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Brahmacharya—spiritual and practical purity—largely associated with celibacy and asceticism. Gandhi saw brahmacharya as a means of becoming close with God and as a primary foundation for self realization. In his autobiography he tells of his battle against lustful urges and fits of jealousy with his childhood bride, Kasturba Gandhi. He felt it his personal obligation to remain celibate so that he could learn to love, rather than lust. For Gandhi, brahmacharya meant "control of the senses in thought, word and deed."[2]

Experiments with Brahmacharya

Towards the end of his life, it became known to public knowledge that Gandhi had been sharing his bed for a number of years with young women.[3][4] He explained that he did this for bodily warmth at night and termed his actions as "nature cure". Later in his life he started experimenting with brahmacharya in order to test his self control. His letter to Birla in April, 1945 referring to ‘women or girls who have been naked with me’ indicates that several women were part of his experiments.[5] Sex became the most talked about subject matter by Gandhi after ahimsa (non-violence) and increasingly so in his later years. He devoted five full editorials in Harijan discussing the practice of brahmacharya.[6]

As part of these experiments, he initially slept with his women associates in the same room but at a distance. Afterwards he started to lie in the same bed with his women disciples and later took to sleeping naked alongside them .[5] According to Gandhi active-celibacy meant perfect self control in the presence of opposite sex. Gandhi conducted his experiments with a number of women such as Abha, the sixteen year old wife of his grand-nephew Kanu Gandhi. Gandhi acknowledged “that this experiment is very dangerous indeed”, but thought “that it was capable of yielding great results”.[7] His nineteen year old grand-niece, Manu Gandhi, too was part of his experiments. Gandhi had earlier written to her father, Jaisukhlal Gandhi, that Manu had started to share his bed so that he may "correct her sleeping posture".[7] In Gandhi’s view experiment of sleeping naked with Manu in Noakhali would help him in contemplating upon Hindu-Muslim unity in India before partition and ease communal tensions. Gandhi saw himself as a mother to these women and would refer to Abha and Manu as “my walking sticks”.

Gandhi called Sarladevi, a married woman with children and a devout follower, his “spiritual wife”. He later said that he had come close to having sexual relations with her.[8] He had told a correspondent in march, 1945 that “sleeping together came with my taking up of bramhacharya or even before that”; he said he had experimented with his wife “but that was not enough”.[7] Gandhi felt satisfied with his experiments and wrote to Manu that “I have successfully practiced the eleven vows taken by me. This is the culmination of my striving for last thirty six years. In this yajna I got a glimpse of the ideal truth and purity for which I have been striving”.

Gandhi had to take criticism for his experiments by many of his followers and opponents. His stenographer, R.P. Parasuram, resigned when he saw Gandhi sleeping naked with Manu.[9] Gandhi insisted that he never felt aroused while he slept beside her, or with Sushila or Abha. “I am sorry” Gandhi said to Parasuram, “you are at liberty to leave me today”. Nirmal Kumar Bose, another close associate of Gandhi, parted company with him in April, 1947 post Gandhi’s tour of Noakhali, where some sort of altercation had taken place between Gandhi and Sushila Nayar in his bedroom at midnight that caused Gandhi to slap his forehead. Bose had stated that the nature of his experiments in bramhacharya still remained unknown and unstated.[9][10]



Ideals and criticisms

Gandhi's rigid ahimsa implies pacifism, and is thus a source of criticism from across the political spectrum.

Concept of partition

As a rule, Gandhi was opposed to the concept of partition as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.[11] Of the partition of India to create Pakistan, he wrote in Harijan on 6 October 1946:

[The demand for Pakistan] as put forth by the Moslem League is un-Islamic and I have not hesitated to call it sinful. Islam stands for unity and the brotherhood of mankind, not for disrupting the oneness of the human family. Therefore, those who want to divide India into possibly warring groups are enemies alike of India and Islam. They may cut me into pieces but they cannot make me subscribe to something which I consider to be wrong [...] we must not cease to aspire, in spite of [the] wild talk, to befriend all Moslems and hold them fast as prisoners of our love.[12]

However, as Homer Jack notes of Gandhi's long correspondence with Jinnah on the topic of Pakistan: "Although Gandhi was personally opposed to the partition of India, he proposed an agreement...which provided that the Congress and the Moslem League would cooperate to attain independence under a provisional government, after which the question of partition would be decided by a plebiscite in the districts having a Moslem majority."[13]

These dual positions on the topic of the partition of India opened Gandhi up to criticism from both Hindus and Muslims. Muhammad Ali Jinnah and contemporary Pakistanis condemned Gandhi for undermining Muslim political rights. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his allies condemned Gandhi, accusing him of politically appeasing Muslims while turning a blind eye to their atrocities against Hindus, and for allowing the creation of Pakistan (despite having publicly declared that "before partitioning India, my body will have to be cut into two pieces").[14] This continues to be politically contentious: some, like Pakistani-American historian Ayesha Jalal argue that Gandhi and the Congress' unwillingness to share power with the Muslim League hastened partition; others, like Hindu nationalist politician Pravin Togadia have also criticized Gandhi's leadership and actions on this topic, but indicating that excessive weakeness on his part led to the division of India.

Gandhi also expressed his dislike for partition during the late 1930s in response to the topic of the partition of Palestine to create Israel. He stated in Harijan on 26 October 1938:

Several letters have been received by me asking me to declare my views about the Arab-Jew question in Palestine and persecution of the Jews in Germany. It is not without hesitation that I venture to offer my views on this very difficult question. My sympathies are all with the Jews. I have known them intimately in South Africa. Some of them became life-long companions. Through these friends I came to learn much of their age-long persecution. They have been the untouchables of Christianity [...] But my sympathy does not blind me to the requirements of justice. The cry for the national home for the Jews does not make much appeal to me. The sanction for it is sought in the Bible and the tenacity with which the Jews have hankered after return to Palestine. Why should they not, like other peoples of the earth, make that country their home where they are born and where they earn their livelihood? Palestine belongs to the Arabs in the same sense that England belongs to the English or France to the French. It is wrong and inhuman to impose the Jews on the Arabs. What is going on in Palestine today cannot be justified by any moral code of conduct.[15][16]

Rejection of resistance which he did not take part in

Gandhi also came under some political fire for his criticism of those who attempted to achieve independence through more violent means. His refusal to protest against the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Udham Singh and Rajguru were sources of condemnation among some parties.[17][18]

Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms...but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the [Hindu–Moslem riots] and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."[19]

He continued this argument in a number of articles reprinted in Homer Jack's The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. In the first, "Zionism and Anti-Semitism," written in 1938, Gandhi commented upon the 1930s persecution of the Jews in Germany within the context of Satyagraha. He offered non-violence as a method of combating the difficulties Jews faced in Germany, stating,

If I were a Jew and were born in Germany and earned my livelihood there, I would claim Germany as my home even as the tallest Gentile German might, and challenge him to shoot me or cast me in the dungeon; I would refuse to be expelled or to submit to discriminating treatment. And for doing this I should not wait for the fellow Jews to join me in civil resistance, but would have confidence that in the end the rest were bound to follow my example. If one Jew or all the Jews were to accept the prescription here offered, he or they cannot be worse off than now. And suffering voluntarily undergone will bring them an inner strength and joy...the calculated violence of Hitler may even result in a general massacre of the Jews by way of his first answer to the declaration of such hostilities. But if the Jewish mind could be prepared for voluntary suffering, even the massacre I have imagined could be turned into a day of thanksgiving and joy that Jehovah had wrought deliverance of the race even at the hands of the tyrant. For to the God-fearing, death has no terror.[20]

Gandhi was highly criticized for these statements and responded in the article "Questions on the Jews" with "Friends have sent me two newspaper cuttings criticizing my appeal to the Jews. The two critics suggest that in presenting non-violence to the Jews as a remedy against the wrong done to them, I have suggested nothing new...what I have pleaded for is renunciation of violence of the heart and consequent active exercise of the force generated by the great renunciation.[21] He responded to the criticisms in "Reply to Jewish Friends"[22] and "Jews and Palestine."[23] by arguing that "What I have pleaded for is renunciation of violence of the heart and consequent active exercise of the force generated by the great renunciation."[21]

Gandhi's statements regarding Jews facing the impending Holocaust have attracted criticism from a number of commentators.[24] Martin Buber, himself an opponent of a Jewish state, wrote a sharply critical open letter to Gandhi on February 24, 1939. Buber asserted that the comparison between British treatment of Indian subjects and Nazi treatment of Jews was inapposite; moreover, he noted that when Indians were the victims of persecution, Gandhi had, on occasion, supported the use of force.[25]

Gandhi commented upon the 1930s persecution of the Jews in Germany within the context of Satyagraha. In the November 1938 article on the Nazi persecution of the Jews quoted above, he offered non-violence as a solution:

The German persecution of the Jews seems to have no parallel in history. The tyrants of old never went so mad as Hitler seems to have gone. And he is doing it with religious zeal. For he is propounding a new religion of exclusive and militant nationalism in the name of which any inhumanity becomes an act of humanity to be rewarded here and hereafter. The crime of an obviously mad but intrepid youth is being visited upon his whole race with unbelievable ferocity. If there ever could be a justifiable war in the name of and for humanity, a war against Germany, to prevent the wanton persecution of a whole race, would be completely justified. But I do not believe in any war. A discussion of the pros and cons of such a war is therefore outside my horizon or province. But if there can be no war against Germany, even for such a crime as is being committed against the Jews, surely there can be no alliance with Germany. How can there be alliance between a nation which claims to stand for justice and democracy and one which is the declared enemy of both?"[26][27]

Early South African articles

Some of Gandhi's early South African articles are controversial. On 7 March, 1908, Gandhi wrote in the Indian Opinion of his time in a South African prison: "Many of the native prisoners are only one degree removed from the animal and often created rows and fought among themselves."[28] Gandhi also wrote: "Kaffirs are as a rule uncivilised — the convicts even more so. They are troublesome, very dirty and live almost like animals."[29] Writing on the subject of immigration in 1903, Gandhi commented: "We believe as much in the purity of race as we think they do... We believe also that the white race in South Africa should be the predominating race."[30] Gandhi gave a speech on 26 September 1896 in which he referred to the "raw kaffir, whose occupation is hunting and whose sole ambition is to collect a certain number of cattle to buy a wife with, and then pass his life in indolence and nakedness

Anti Statism

Gandhi was an anti statist in the sense that his vision of India meant India without an underlying government.[31] His idea was that true self rule in a country means that every person rules himself and that there is no state which enforces laws upon the people.[32][33] On occasions he described himself as a philosophical anarchist.[34] A free India for him meant existence of thousands of self sufficient small communities (an idea possibly from Tolstoy) who rule themselves without hindering others. It did not mean merely transferring a British established administrative structure into Indian hands which he said was just making Hindustan into Englistan.[35] He wanted to dissolve the Congress Party after independence and establish a system of direct democracy in India,[36] having no faith in the British styled parliamentary system.[37]


Gandhi and Sikhs

Gandhi has been reported to have called Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru of the Sikhs, a 'misguided patriot,' because he said he had used violence. Gandhi has not had a good relation with many Sikhs, because of his relation to freedom-fighters like Shaheed Udham Singh, and Kartar Singh Sarabha. Sikhs have always been taught to use a sword only as a last resort, and Gandhi was unable to understand that.

Listen to Katha of Giani Sant Singh Maskeen on what was stated about Guru Gobind Singh Ji about him.

One can also read throughout the work of Professor Puran Singh and many of his other works.

Gandhi and the credit he is given

The nation of India was created in 1947, with World War II, and the many things that were taking place. Many freedom-fighters took part in the movement to get independence. As a high-caste Hindu brahmin, Gandhi was given credit as the 'father of the nation' when many people took part. This has created many criticisms of M.K Gandhi, and has given us a lot to learn about.

References

  1. ^ Time magazine people of the century
  2. ^ The Story of My Experiments with Truth — An Autobiography, p. 176.
  3. ^ {{ #if: Birkett | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: Birkett | Birkett{{ #if: Dea | , Dea }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: Birkett | Birkett{{ #if: Dea | , Dea }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: Birkett | {{ #if: Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, Lloyd I Rudolph | ; Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, Lloyd I Rudolph }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{ #if: Birkett | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma] | Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: Orient Longman | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}Orient Longman }}{{ #if: 56 | , 56 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: 0002160056 | . ISBN 0002160056 }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  4. ^ {{ #if: Caplan | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: Caplan | Caplan{{ #if: Pat | , Pat }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: Caplan | Caplan{{ #if: Pat | , Pat }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: Caplan | {{ #if: Patricia Caplan | ; Patricia Caplan }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: 1987 | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} 1987) | (1987) }} }} }}{{ #if: Caplan | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} The Cultural construction of sexuality] | The Cultural construction of sexuality }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: Routledge | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}Routledge }}{{ #if: 278 | , 278 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: 0415040132 | . ISBN 0415040132 }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  5. ^ a b {{ #if: Parekh | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: Parekh | Parekh{{ #if: Bhikhu C. | , Bhikhu C. }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: Parekh | Parekh{{ #if: Bhikhu C. | , Bhikhu C. }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: Parekh | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: 1999 | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} 1999) | (1999) }} }} }}{{ #if: Parekh | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} Colonialism, Tradition and Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi's Political Discourse] | Colonialism, Tradition and Reform: An Analysis of Gandhi's Political Discourse }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: Sage | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}Sage }}{{ #if: 210 | , 210 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: 0761993835 | . ISBN 0761993835 }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  6. ^ {{ #if: Kumar | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: Kumar | Kumar{{ #if: Girja | , Girja }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: Kumar | Kumar{{ #if: Girja | , Girja }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: Kumar | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: 1997 | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} 1997) | (1997) }} }} }}{{ #if: Kumar | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} The Book on Trial: Fundamentalism and Censorship in India] | The Book on Trial: Fundamentalism and Censorship in India }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: Har-Anand Publications | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}Har-Anand Publications }}{{ #if: 98 | , 98 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: 8124105251 | . ISBN 8124105251 }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  7. ^ a b c {{ #if: Tidrick | {{ #if: | [[|{{ #if: Tidrick | Tidrick{{ #if: Kathryn | , Kathryn }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: Tidrick | Tidrick{{ #if: Kathryn | , Kathryn }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: Tidrick | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: 2007 | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} 2007) | (2007) }} }} }}{{ #if: Tidrick | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} Gandhi: A Political and Spiritual Life] | Gandhi: A Political and Spiritual Life }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: I.B.Tauris | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}I.B.Tauris }}{{ #if: 302–304 | , 302–304 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: 1845111664 | . ISBN 1845111664 }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  8. ^ {{ #if: Tidrick | {{ #if: | [[|{{ #if: Tidrick | Tidrick{{ #if: Kathryn | , Kathryn }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: Tidrick | Tidrick{{ #if: Kathryn | , Kathryn }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: Tidrick | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: 2007 | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} 2007) | (2007) }} }} }}{{ #if: Tidrick | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} Gandhi: A Political and Spiritual Life] | Gandhi: A Political and Spiritual Life }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: I.B.Tauris | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}I.B.Tauris }}{{ #if: 160 | , 160 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: 1845111664 | . ISBN 1845111664 }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  9. ^ a b {{ #if: Wolpert | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: Wolpert | Wolpert{{ #if: Stanley | , Stanley }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: Wolpert | Wolpert{{ #if: Stanley | , Stanley }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: Wolpert | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: 2001 | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} 2001) | (2001) }} }} }}{{ #if: Wolpert | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi] | Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: Oxford University Press | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}Oxford University Press }}{{ #if: 226–227 | , 226–227 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: 019515634X | . ISBN 019515634X }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  10. ^ {{ #if: Kumar | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: Kumar | Kumar{{ #if: Girja | , Girja }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: Kumar | Kumar{{ #if: Girja | , Girja }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: Kumar | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: 1997 | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} 1997) | (1997) }} }} }}{{ #if: Kumar | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} The Book on Trial: Fundamentalism and Censorship in India] | The Book on Trial: Fundamentalism and Censorship in India }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: Har-Anand Publishers | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}Har-Anand Publishers }}{{ #if: 73-107 | , 73-107 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: 8124105251 | . ISBN 8124105251 }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  11. ^ reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas., Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 106–108.
  12. ^ reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas.Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 308–9.
  13. ^ Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, p. 418.
  14. ^ "The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi", on BBC News, see section "Independence and partition."
  15. ^ reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas., Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) pp. 286-288.
  16. ^ SANET-MG Archives - September 2001 (#303)
  17. ^ Mahatama Gandhi on Bhagat Singh.
  18. ^ Gandhi — 'Mahatma' or Flawed Genius?.
  19. ^ reprinted in The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas., Louis Fischer, ed., 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.
  20. ^ Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, pp. 319–20.
  21. ^ a b Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, p. 322.
  22. ^ Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, pp. 323–4.
  23. ^ Jack, Homer The Gandhi Reader, pp. 324–6.
  24. ^ David Lewis Schaefer. What Did Gandhi Do?. National Review, 28 April 2003. Retrieved 21 March 2006; Richard Grenier. "The Gandhi Nobody Knows". Commentary Magazine. March 1983. Retrieved 21 March 2006.
  25. ^ Hertzberg, Arthur. The Zionist Idea. PA: Jewish Publications Society, 1997, pp. 463-464.; see also Gordon, Haim. "A Rejection of Spiritual Imperialism: Reflections on Buber's Letter to Gandhi." Journal of Ecumenical Studies, June 22, 1999.
  26. ^ Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader, Harijan, November 26, 1938, pp. 317–318.
  27. ^ Mohandas K. Gandhi. A Non-Violent Look at Conflict & Violence Published in Harijan on November 26, 1938
  28. ^ {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: | {{{last}}}{{ #if: | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: | {{{last}}}{{ #if: | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{ #if: | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi] | The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{ #if: 183 | , 183 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: | . ISBN {{{isbn}}} }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  29. ^ {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: | {{{last}}}{{ #if: | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: | {{{last}}}{{ #if: | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{ #if: | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi] | The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{ #if: 199 | , 199 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: | . ISBN {{{isbn}}} }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  30. ^ {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{ #if: | {{{last}}}{{ #if: | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{ #if: | {{{last}}}{{ #if: | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }} }} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }} }}{{ #if: | [{{{origdate}}}] | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | [{{{origmonth}}} {{{origyear}}}] | [{{{origyear}}}] }} }} }}{{ #if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{ #if: | {{ #if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}{{ #if: | . }}{{ #if: | "{{ #if: | [{{{chapterurl}}} {{{chapter}}}] | {{{chapter}}} }}",}}{{ #if: | in {{{editor}}}: }} {{ #if: | [{{{url}}} The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi] | The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi }}{{ #if: | ({{{format}}}) }}{{ #if: | , {{{others}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{edition}}} }}{{ #if: | , {{{series}}} }}{{ #if: | (in {{{language}}}) }}{{ #if: | {{#if: | , | . }}{{ #if: | {{{location}}}: }}{{{publisher}}} }}{{ #if: 255 | , 255 }}{{ #if: | . DOI:{{{doi}}} }}{{ #if: | . {{{id}}} }}{{ #if: | . ISBN {{{isbn}}} }}{{ #if: | . OCLC {{{oclc}}} }}{{ #if: | {{ #if: | . Retrieved on [[{{{accessdate}}}]] | {{ #if: | . Retrieved {{ #if: | on [[{{{accessmonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}]] | during [[{{{accessyear}}}]] }}}} }} }}.{{ #if: |  “{{{quote}}}” }} </in
  31. ^ Jesudasan, Ignatius. A Gandhian theology of liberation. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash: Ananda India, 1987, pp 236–237
  32. ^ Murthy, Srinivas.Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy Letters. Long Beach Publications: Long Beach, 1987, pp 13
  33. ^ Murthy, Srinivas.Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy Letters. Long Beach Publications: Long Beach, 1987, pp 189.
  34. ^ Articles on and by Gandhi, Retrieved on June 7, 2008.
  35. ^ Chapter VI Hind Swaraj by M.K. Gandhi
  36. ^ Bhattacharyya, Buddhadeva. Evolution of the political philosophy of Gandhi. Calcutta Book House: Calcutta, 1969, pp 479
  37. ^ Chapter VI Hind Swaraj by M.K. Gandhi